OPENACCESSSAl-QamarISSN(Online):2664-4398ISSN(Print):2664-438Xwww.alqamarjournal.comAl-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraisingReligiousContinuitiesDr.SarahUmerAssociateProfessor,DepartmentofGraphicDesign,UniversityCollegeofArtandDesign–UniversityofthePunjab,Lahoresarah76khan@gmail.com/sara.cad@pu.edu.pkhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-2725-1016thatHarappansmightbeAbstractThisresearchintendstorecognizetheinfluenceofHarappanreligiousinheritancenotonlyintheearlystrataofHinduismbutalsointhereligiousthoughtprevalentinthegreaterArabworld,consideringthehypothesistheparentstockofMesopotamians.AccordingtotheKingJamesversionoftheBible,theancestorsoftheHebrewscametothecityofUrfromtheEast;theBibledoesnotsaywhenNoahandhissonShemwiththeirfamiliesarrivedinSumer(Ur),butitdoessaythattheycamefromtheEastandaccordingtosomescholarstheregiontotheeastiseitherMeLuhha(IndusValleycivilization)orDilmun(Bahrain).Moreover,JimWillshasbasedatheoryonmorerecentarchaeologicalexcavationreportsfromnorthwestIndia(presentdayPakistan)thatHinduismjustmightprovetobemucholderthanwhatscholarsinitiallythoughtandmighthavearisenduringtheIndusValleycivilizationera.Therefore,thisstudyhasexploredpossibilitiesofthefactthatthisregionwasnotonlyhometolaterindigenousreligionslikeJainism,BuddhismandHinduismthathelpedtoshapethereligiousbeliefsofotherregionsofSouthAsiaandSoutheastAsiabutalsohasamucholderreligiouspresenceduringtheIndusValleycivilization,which37TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...seemsliketohavecontributedtowardsshapingthereligiousbeliefsofthegreaterArabworld.Keywords:Harappa,Religion,SouthAsia,ArabWorld,HinduismIntroductionTheIndusValleycivilizationisamongthethreeancientcivilizationsoftheworldthatexpandedoveralargearea,extendingfromnorth-easternAfghanistan,andincludingpresent-dayPakistanandeasternIndia(seeFigure1).Consideringthetimelineoftheexcavatedmaterialthatwehavetodayfromthesecivilizations,Mesopotamiancivilizationisapproximately1000yearsearliertoIndusValley,whileEgyptiancivilizationis1000yearslater.Yet,theIndusValleycivilizationisamongallancientcivilizationstheleastinvestigatedduetolimitationoflanguage,translations,anddocuments,asoutofthethreeitistheonlyonewhosescriptremainsundeciphered.Figure1-GeneralMapofAncientCivilizationsfromwww.harappa.comhttps://kearnsmedia.weebly.com/early-civilizations--the-foundations-of-human-culture.htmlStill,despitetheselimitationsarchaeologistsandscholarsaretryingtounderstandmanyaspectsoftheIndusValleypeoplewiththehelpofexcavatedmaterialalongwithtextualevidencethathasbeenunearthedfromthisand38Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)contemporarycivilizations.Onesuchaspect,thatisthereligionoftheIndusValleypeoplehasbeendiscussedinmybookentitled,“ReligiousBeliefsoftheIndusValleyCivilization”inwhichIconcludedthatthereligionoftheIndusValleycivilizationmustbebasedonconceptsofequalityandjustice,andthattheyweresomeofthemostimportantbindingforcesthatalloweditssuccessfulcontinuityforyears.1Asevidentfromthelifestyleoftheindividual,ItracedtherightsthateachInduspersongavetohisfellowcitizenduetowhichthisgloriouscivilization-geographicallydoublethesizeofitscontemporarycivilizationsexistedformanycenturieswithouttheuseofvisibleforceandarms,2atatimewhenitscontemporaryMesopotamiaandEgyptwerebusyfightingoverterritorialgains.TheIndusValleycivilizationontheotherhandshowsnoevidenceofproductionofweaponryatanyoftheexcavatedsitesalongwithnoevidenceoffatalhumanconflictthatfurtherendorsethefactthatthepeopleofthiscivilizationwerepeaceful.As,fundamentalunityinthecommunitywasestablishedonthebaseofequality,liberty,andfraternity.Thismessageofequalityamonghumanshasbeenadvocatedbyvariousreligionsoftheworld.“Humanityisbutasinglebrotherhood:so,makepeacewithyourbrethren.”Quran49:10“ThereisneitherJewnorGreek,thereisneitherslavenorfree,thereisnomaleandfemale,foryouarealloneinChristJesus.”Galatians3:28“Ilookuponallcreaturesequally;nonearelessdeartomeandnonemoredear.”BhagavadGita9:29“Neverbelieveyouareaboveorbelowanyone.Keepahumblespirit.”Buddha39TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...ConsideringtheviewoflaterindigenousreligionsofSouthAsiaandtheNearEastandkeepingthereligiousvaluesoftheIndusValleypeopleunderconsiderationitcanbeproposedthatthereligionofthiscivilizationwasatparwiththereligiousbeliefsofotherreligions,accordingtowhichallmankindshouldbeconsideredequal.Therefore,takingthisaspectintoconsiderationwhenwestudythiscivilization,wecomeacrossmultipleexamplesthathinttowardsequalitybeingobservedbythemasses,whetheritbetheirsimilarpottery,similarjewelry,similararchitectureetc.,thatisfoundacrossthelengthandbreadthofthiscivilizationwithoutanysignofdisparity(seeFigure2-3).Figure2-GatewayatHarappa:IndusValleyCivilizationhttps://www.crystalinks.com/induscivilization.htmlFigure3-Housesofsamesizehttps://www.crystalinks.com/induscivilization.html40Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)UnlikewhatwewitnessislaterMesopotamianandEgyptiancities,whereacertainclasswasmoreprivilegedwhencomparedwiththemasses,asisevidentfromtheirarchitectureandlifestyle(seeFigure4-5-6).Figure4-ThewellpreservedTempleofHorusatEdfuisanexampleofEgyptianarchitectureandarchitecturalsculpture.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture#/media/File:S_F-E-CAMERON_EGYPT_2006_FEB_00289.JPGFigure5-Urhttps://www.lugaresconhistoria.com/ur-irak41TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Figure6-Urukasitmayhavelookedhttps://www.businessinsider.com/largest-cities-throughout-history-2013-1?op=1#uruk-took-the-lead-in-3500-bc-with-4000-citizens-2Additionally,theexcavatedmaterialfoundfromtheIndusValleycivilizationalsonegatestheexistenceofapolytheisticIndussociety,unlikewhatiswitnessedinMesopotamiaandEgypt(seeFigure7-8).So,takingintoaccounttheseaspectsahypothesisisproposedinthispaper,thatpointstowardsacoursewheretheHarappansontheonehandmightprovetobetheparentstockofMesopotamians,whileontheotherhanditmighthelptorecognizetheinfluenceofHarappanreligiousinheritancenotonlyintheearlystrataofHinduismbutalsointhereligiousthoughtprevalentinthegreaterArabworld,ashintsofmonotheismbeenpracticedhavebeenrevealedduringsomeperiodsinbothMesopotamiaandEgypt.42Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)Figure7-Ur-NammustandingbeforetheseatedEnlilhttps://www.realmofhistory.com/2017/05/09/10-ancient-mesopotamian-gods-goddesses-facts/Figure8-20MajorEgyptianGods,Goddesses,AndTheirFamilyTreehttps://www.realmofhistory.com/2019/10/11/15-ancient-egyptian-gods-goddesses-facts/DiscussionManyscholarstodayseetheHarappansastheparentstockoftheMesopotamians.As,ampleevidenceispresenttoprovethatsincepre-historicaltimesmanhadbeentravellingfromeasttowestandfromwesttoeast,ashas43TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...alsobeenprovenbythelaterprehistoryandhistoryofbothMiddleEastandIndusValley(seeFigure9).Figure9-AncientTradeRouteshttp://indus-valley-civ.weebly.com/economy-and-trade.htmlDuringearth’sThirdGlacierMaximumitbecamedifficultforbothman,animalsandplantstosurviveinplacesthatwerebelievedtobeoccupiedbyhumans(Europe,theMiddleEast,Persia,CentralAsiaandNorthAmerica),bythattime.So,humanshadtorelocatefortheirsurvivaltomorehospitableenvironmentssuchastheIndusValleyregion,theHimalayanstepsandKashmirvalleys.3ExtensivestudiesaroundtheIndusregionbackthisclaimwiththehelpofsignificantarcheologicaldata,whichmatcheswithforensicanthropologicalinvestigationsoninhabitantsofmodernPakistan.Theresultsshowthearrivaloffewpeopleintothesub-continentfromthenorth-westduringthelatePleistocenePeriodbetween12,000to17,000yearsago.4Likewise,DNAdataharmonizingwitharchaeologicaldataaroundtheearlyHolocenePeriodenlightensusabouta“ThirdMigration”ofsurvivors44Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)oftheLastGlacierMaximum,whichoccurredatthistimetravellingfromeasttowest,insteadoffromwesttoeast.Thisisknownasthe“OutofAsia”hypothesis.5ThiswouldmakeIndusValleyregionandthePersianpassagenotonlyageneticjunctionbutalsoaculturaljunctionthatsawthebeginningofdomesticationofbothanimalsandplants(seeFigure10).Figure10-MapwhichshowsgroupoccupyingandmigratingfromIndus-Persianregiontowestbetween15,000and10,000BP.MapbasedonPrAdam's.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631068311001199Thismovementonlystrengthenstheverse,mentionedinKingJamesversionoftheBible,TheFirstBookofMoses,calledGenesis,chapter11,whichsaysthattheancestorsoftheHebrewscametothecityofUrfromtheEast;theBibledoesnotsaywhenNoahandhissonShemwiththeirfamiliesarrivedinSumer(Ur),butitdoessaythattheycamefromtheEastandtheyfoundandbuiltuplandscapesofcitiesandtowers.45TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...ItwasduringHolocenePeriod,whenthefoundationsofthefirsthumancivilizations,werelaidinbothdirections(eastandwest).Man,forthefirsttimeinthetotaltimespanofhisexistenceonearth,finallystartedsettledlifeindifferentpartsoftheworldbetween8000to12,000yearsago.Though,archaeologytellsusthatthefirstareatobecultivatedwasintheMiddleEast,intheareaknownastheFertileCrescentaround12,000yearsago(seeFigure11),fromwhereitspreadtotherestoftheMiddleEast,partsofSub-SaharanAfrica,Pakistan,ChinaandEurope(seeFigure12).6Butifwekeepthe“OutofAsia”hypothesisinmind,infutureyearswecanfindsettlementsinSouthAsiathatmightpredatethesettlementsofMiddleEast.Figure11-Areaofthefertilecrescent,c.7500BCE,withmainarchaeologicalsitesofthePre-PotteryNeolithicperiod.TheareaofMesopotamiaproperwasnotyetsettledbyhumans.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution#/media/File:Fertile_crescent_Neolithic_B_circa_7500_BC.jpg46Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)Figure12-Diffusivepathwayofflatbreads.Flatbreadssubstantiallyfollowedthesamepathofcereals(wheatandbarley),startingfromtheFertileCrescent.https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S235261811830009XKinnierWilsoninoneofherpublishedarticlesentitled,“FishRationsandtheIndusScript:SomeNewArgumentsintheCaseforAccountancy”,alsosays,“WemayyetdiscoversiteslyingfurtherwestthanBalakotwhichcouldsuggestthatthetwopeoples,HarappansandSumerians,werelessremotelyseparatedthanappearsatthepresenttime.”7Inshort,shehintstowardstheprobabilitythatinitiallyHarappansandSumerianswereonepeople,oratleastcloselyrelated.Therefore,thiskinshipamongbothshouldbesoughtintheIndusDelta.As,HarappansmightbetheparentstockandSumeriansbeingasmallbranchoftheparentstockmighthavelefttoexploreanddevelopindependently.TheunearthingofMehrgarh(Baluchistan,Pakistan)in1976isonesuchexample,whichisresponsibleforrevisingthehistoricalchronologyofSouthAsiafrom3000to7000BCE(seeFigure13).47TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Figure13-RuinsofHousesatMehrgarhhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MehrgarhLikethis,thepossibilityofmanysuchsitescannotbeignored,whenhugelandscapesremainunexploredinthevicinityofBaluchistan,whichisanextensionoftheIranianplateaucloselyconnectedandopentoreceiveandtransmitculturalinfluencesfromandtotheothercentersofancientcivilizations,especiallybetweennortheasternIran,SeistanandCentralAsiaontheonehandandtheGreaterIndusontheother(seeFigure14).Figure14-IndusValleysiteshttps://www.reddit.com/r/pakistan/comments/8kpcr3/indus_valley_civilization_oc_3496x1978/48Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)Additionally,archaeologicalevidencefoundfromEridu,asouthernMesopotamiancityidentifiedinlaterMesopotamianmythsasthefirstcity,whichisalsoknownbyarchaeologistsasUrukfurthersupportsthisargument(seeFigure15).ExtraordinarilytheexcavationsandexcavatedmaterialfoundfromthiscityshowsnosignsofsocialinequalityordifferenceinwealthorstatusliketheIndusValleycities.Likewise,itseemsthattheroleofmaintainingsocialandeconomicstabilitywastheresponsibilityofreligiousinstitutions,whichbacksthenotionoftheauthorthatreligionwasthemainbindingforcethatensuredsuccessfulcontinuityandsustainabilityofIndusValleycivilization.Figure15-MapofEridu,UrorUrukhttps://i.pinimg.com/originals/f9/b7/1a/f9b71a0fac3d19d19ebf95ac181034bc.jpgStill,excavationsinthecityofEriduhasuncoveredasuccessionofsixteentemples,builtoneontopoftheother(seeFigure16).However,theearliesttemplewasasimplesquarebuildingwithanaltarfittedintoanichein49TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...thebackwall,unlikethetypeoftemplestructuresthatwerebuiltwiththepassageoftimewithadditionalroomsaroundthealtarroom.Figure16-ReconstructionofsuccessionofTempleshttps://www.oom2.com/t51260-eridu-the-first-city-on-earth-where-the-sumerian-kings-from-heaven-ruledItseemsthatasMesopotamiancitiesgrew,templesalsonotonlygrewinphysicalsize,buttheybecamestrongerandmorepowerfulinstitutions.Thereissomeevidencethatfarmersandotherworkersdeliveredaportionoftheirproduce,grain,wool,fish,orothergoods-tothetempleprecincts,partiallytofeedthetemplespersonnelandpartiallytocreateacentralstoragebankfromwhichthetemplecoulddistributecommoditiestocertainpeopleinthecommunity.8Thereisevidenceforthisactivityofcollectingandthendistributingthesecommodities,however,onwhatbasesthisdistributionwasmadeisstillunclear.Eitheritwasaccomplishedasbartertradeoritwasdonepurelyfor50Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)religiousandmoralobjectives,wherethesick,travelers,theelderlyoranyneedypersonbenefittedfromthisservice.Itappearsthatthecommunitiesapparentlyundertookthisresponsibilitywithhonestyanddedication.However,apointtoponderuponisthatwhatcouldbethedrivingforcebehindthiscommunityservice,whenstillthereisnoevidenceofanyothermotivebesidethatthesepeoplealsobelievedinequalityamongpeople,likethoselivingintheIndusDelta,whothereisastrongpossibilityofbeentheirkin.ElisabethChristinaLouisaDuringCaspers,inoneofherpublishedarticlesentitled,“TheIndusValley‘Unicorn’:ANearEasternConnection,”mentionsfivedifferentcategorieswhichshowculturaldependenceamongthesetwocivilizations.Briefly,thesecategoriesincludeornamentalanddecorativepatterns(suchastrefoilandkidneydesign),squarestampseals(adominatinghumanfigurewithtwotigers),sealingamuletsfromMohenjo-Daro,HarappaandKalibangan(showsamaleheadwithindisputablySumerianfeatures),cylindersealsfoundfrombothSumerandHarappaandfinallylargetypesofovalorroundishshapeseals(incense-burnerandone-hornedbovineprocessionalsceneisreminiscentofProtoliterateMesopotamia).9Hence,itseemsthattheseareaswerenotonlygeographicallylinkedbutwerestrategicallylinkedtoo,andinnotimeinhistoryweretheyeverdisconnectedfromoneanotherasparallelsinpaintedpotterytypeshavebeenreportedfromTurkmenistan,northernIranandSialkI-IIIdatingbackfromtheendofthesixthmillenniumBCEtothefourthmillenniumBCE.Additionally,onSumerianandAkkadiantablets,especiallythosewrittenduringtheforty-fiveyearsnarratetradingcontactsbetweenthetwo51TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...civilizations,therearetwelveMesopotamiantextsoriginatingfromthecityofUrIIIPeriod(2047–1750BCE)thatrefertoavillagenamedMeLuhha(writtenwithadeterminativeki),suggestingthatthevillageinhabitantsweretradingmerchants,theMeLuhhalivinginanIndusregion,whohadbecomeacculturated.10Thesetextssuggestthatbytheendofthisperiodtheinhabitantshadbecomepermanentresidents.SomescholarslikeGeoffreyBibby,SamuelN.Kramer,JackFineganandNickWyattsaythatwhenwecorelatetheBible,Ebla,andUgarittextswitharchaeologyoftheregionitsuggeststhattheregiontotheeastmusteitherbeMeluhha(Indus)orDilmun(Bahrain)(seeFigure17).11Figure17-AncientCivilizationshttps://www.interfaith.org/community/threads/18187/So,thewriterstronglybelievesthatafurtherprobeisrequiredtoinvestigatetheregionMeluhhaandDilmunnotonlybythestudyofmoreSumerianandAkkadiantabletsbutbythestudyoftabletsfoundfrommultiplycitiesoftheancientArabworld(seeFigure18),suchasatEbla,Ugarit,Mari,52Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)andEgypt.WhilesimultaneouslyoneneedstostudytheearliestwrittenmaterialfoundfromSouthAsia,intheabsenceofadecipheredIndusscript.https://web.cocc.edu/cagatucci/classes/hum213/Maps/Maps2HistoryAncient.htmFigure18-TheAncientNearEastStephenHillyerLevitt,inajournalarticleentitled,“TheDatingoftheIndianTradition,”hasconcluded,“TheRigvedawoulddatebacktothebeginningofthe3rdmillenniumB.C.,Withsomeoftheearliesthymnsperhapsevendatingtotheendofthe4thmillenniumB.C.ThecompositionoftheRigvedawouldendatabout1500B.C.,withtheendofIndusValleyCivilizationandwiththefirstperiodofdoubtandseverecrisisoffaithinMesopotamiancivilization.”12AccordingtowrittenrecordandBiblicalreferencesthatcoincidewithMesopotamianarchaeologicaltexts,thereareindicationsofabandonmentsbyitscitygodsinsixteencities,includingUr,SumerandNippurthatledtothedestructionofthesecities,resultinginageneralseverereligiouscrisis.13However,preliminaryresearchintothetranslationsoftabletsfoundfromthe53TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...greaterArabworldalsoindicateariseofinterestinapersonalGodduringthesecondmillenniumBCE,14whilesimultaneouslythepeoplealsobelievedinseveralsecondarynaturegods(Henotheism).15WhenAbraham(2000–1800BCE)migratedfromUrwithhiscompanions,heleftbehindallsecondaryGodsbecausetheyhadfailedtheinhabitants.Yet,duringtheirmigration,Abraham’sgroupkepttheOneGodtheyhadworshippedsincetheirbirth.ThisGodoftheirfathers,whichaccordingtosomescholarsonlyexistedintheirstories,nonetheless,wasonethatshouldbeseenasthetrueessenceofbeingaSumerianofthetimeandwastakenwiththem,whentheymigrated.16Moreover,thereareothertexts,thatindicatethattheSumeriansbelievedinachiefpersonalGodbesidesecondarynaturegodsatleastfivehundredyearsbeforeAbraham,17thus,pushingbackthebeliefinonepersonalGodintothethirdmillenniumBCE.AtimelinethateasilycoincidesnotonlywiththeIndusValleycivilization,butwhichalsosupportsthe“OutofAsia”hypothesis,versesoftheBibleandclaimofvariousscholarsincludingWilsonthatHarappansmightbetheparentstockofSumerians(inhabitantsofthecityofUr).Rigveda,theearliestVedicscriptureofthisregion,alsotalksaboutapersonalGod,18whiletheMuslimgeographerAbuRehnAlberuniinthe11thACnotesstrandsofmonotheismintheBhagavad-Gita.19Unfortunately,thewrittenhistoryoftheIndusregionthatbeginswiththeseVedicscriptures’datesbackonlyto1500-1200BCEandcoincideswiththeUgaritdatesandMaritablets,whiletheSumerian,EblaandEgyptiantabletspredatethesescriptures.20Nevertheless,Kosambi21arguesthattheVedicscripturesarenot54Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)writteninpureAryanandseesearliernon-Aryangrammaticalstructuresandformsinbothsyntaxandvocabularyinthem,whichstrengththeargumentofStephenthatthereligioushistoryofIndusregionmightbemucholder.JimWillshasbasedatheoryonmorerecentarchaeologicalexcavationreportsfromnorthwestIndia(presentdayPakistan)thatHinduismjustmightprovetobemucholderthanscholarsinitiallythoughtandmighthaveactuallyarisencompletelyindependentofanAryanculturalinfluence.22AccordingtoWarrenMatthewsthatwouldbebeforeanyonekeptcontemporarywrittenrecordsandthusmusthavebeentransmittedonlyorallyfromonegenerationtothenext.23Moreover,manyscholarstodaynegatethe“ArrivaloftheAryanTheory”,accordingtothemsuchamovementneveroccurred.UpinderSinghinherbooktalksabouttheKennethKennedy’sanalysisoftheskeletalrecord,whichrevealsthatthefirstphaseofdiscontinuitiesinphysicaltypesinthenorth-westoccursbetween6000and4500BCE,andthesecondoneafter800BCE.Thereisnoevidenceofanydemographicdisruptioninthenorth-westduringandimmediatelyafterthedeclineoftheHarappancivilization.ItisobviousthatnoinvasionstookplaceduringtheperiodwhentheIndo-AryansweresupposedtohaveenteredIndia,norwerethereanylarge-scalemigrations,butaseriesofsmall-scaleinflowsisamorelikelypossibility.ManyarchaeologistshavetriedtoidentifytheIndo-Aryanmigrationwiththehelpofarchaeologybuthavebeenunsuccessfulsofar.Mughalfurtheremphasizesthepointbystatingculturalcontinuityratherthandiscontinuity.24AsimilarviewisalsoexpressedbyV.GordonChilde,“IndiaconfrontsEgyptandBabyloniabythe3rdmillenniumwithathoroughlyindividualandindependentcivilizationofherown,technically55TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...thepeeroftherest.AndplainlyitisdeeplyrootedinIndiansoil.TheInduscivilizationrepresentsaveryperfectadjustmentofhumanlifetoaspecificenvironment.Andithasendured;itisalreadyspecificallyIndianandformsthebasisofmodernIndianculture.”25Inshort,HinduismwouldpredatetheAryansconquestsbycenturies(i.e.,ifthereeverwasaconquest)andcouldhaveahistoricalidentitywiththeIndusValleycivilization:theAryansdidnotinventearlyHinduism,theysimplyconqueredthelandswhereitwaspracticed,ascanbeconcludedonthebasesofthe“mediatingyogi”,the“so-calledShivalinga’s”,the“pipaltree”,the“greatbath”,manyIndusimagesandcultsthatseemstohaveculturallytravelledthroughgenerations.Yet,itseemsthatthecontextinwhichtheywereproducedoruseddefinitelymusthavechangedbetweenthedemiseofIndusValleycivilization(1500BCE)andbirthofBuddhismandJainism(600BCE)becausehadthisnotbeenthecasethanthesetworeformativereligionswouldnothavesprungfromthesamelandtomakesomeofthebeliefsofHinduismcounterproductive.Forexample,therigidcastesystemwhichisagainsttheconceptofequalityamonghumansandonethatwaschallengedbyindividualslikeBuddha(founderofBuddhism)andMahavira(24thTirthankaraofJainism).Asaresult,Hinduscameupwithabookofreformsknownas“Upanishads”tore-establishtheirlostcharacter.Thesedevelopmentssuggestthatthepeopleofthislandbelievedinequalityamonghumansandthatreligionwasanimportantelementintheirlives.SomescholarsalsobelievethataslateasAshok’sreign(250BCE)therewasnoestablishedformforafollowerofHinduism:26theywerereferredaseitherSramanasorBrahmans.27While,thecreationofHinduismasasingle56Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)religiontookplaceevenafterthebeginningofBuddhismandJainism,inthe6thcenturyBCE.Whileiconographyofthe“OneSupremeGod”oftheHindusintovariouspersonificationsalsocamemuchlatertothisland.Furthermore,intheabsenceofadecipheredIndusscriptandwithtotaldependenceonarchaeology28itcanbesuspectedthatthecurrentexcavatedevidencenegates29theexistenceofapolytheisticIndussocietythatwasusingsmallfigurines(seeFigure19)asopposedtotheverylargedeities(seeFigure20-21)thatadornthetemplesofitscontemporarycivilizations.30AccordingtoIrfanHabibthispointdifferentiatestheInduscivilizationanditsartfromtheartworksofitscontemporarycivilizations,wheremassivesculpturesandbuildingsweremadetosupportthestatereligionunlikeIndusValleycivilizationwherenoreligiousstructuresorsculptresshavebeenfound.31Figure19-GoddessfromIndusValleycivilizationhttps://www.pinterest.com/pin/739857045003968452/57TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Figure20-AncientMesopotamianGodhttps://www.grunge.com/162587/messed-up-things-that-happened-in-ancient-mesopotamia/Figure21-AncientEgyptianGodhttps://www.pakistantoday.com.pk/2017/12/04/fragmented-statues-of-lion-goddess-discovered-in-southern-egypt/58Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)Wheelersuggeststhattolinktheseterracottafigurines(SeeFigure22)withthe“Mothergoddess”notionofwesternAsiaandEuropewouldbeanexaggeration,asitseemsthatnospecialeffortwasputintothemakingofthesesculpturepieces;therefeatures,andgeneralmodelingiscrude;“…alumpofclayisaddedtorepresentaninfantatthebreastoronthehip;andthegeneralnotionoffertility,whetherinthanksgivingorinanticipation,isfurtherindicatedbyrepresentationsofpregnancy,althoughthereisnoemphasisofthegenerativeorganssuchasisnormaltoMotherGoddesscults.”32Figure22-TerraCottafigurinesfromIndusValleyhttp://heritage.gov.pk/html_pages/Indus_terracotta_figurines.htmIrfanHabibalsobacksthisnotionashealsosuggeststhatthesenumerousinnumberfemalefigurinesfoundfromprivatehousesoutnumberedtheprocreativemalegodlings(seeFigure23),thereforetheymighthavebeenusedfordomesticsuperstitionsandbeliefpurposestoobtainchildren.3359TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Figure-23MaleGodlingsfromIndusValleyhttp://heritage.gov.pk/html_pages/Indus_terracotta_figurines.htmCatherineJarrigealsobacksthisnotionasaccordingtoherthesefigurineswerefrequentlyfoundinhouseholdtrashdepositsgivingtheimpressionthattheywerehaphazardlydiscarded.34However,theymighthavebeenusedforsomekindofdomesticcultorfor,“magicalpractices,asisfrequentlythecaseinagrariansocieties”35becauseJarrigecameacrosssomeholesrunningthroughthefigurineswithsmalltwigscuttingstraightthroughthemseveraltimes,whiletheclaywasstillsoftsuggestingamagicalattempttorelieveoneselffrompainortoharmsomeonethroughanimage.36RitaP.WrightontheotherhandhassuggestedthatmaybetheywereliketheBarbieandG.I.Joedollsofthetwentiethcentury,madeonlyforplayingpurposesthatcouldincludepuppetry(maskfound),thusuponbreakingwereeasilydisposedinhouseholdtrashes.37So,consideringthearcheologicalevidencealongwiththeviewsoftheabove-mentionedscholarsitseemsclearthatthesefemalefigurinescannotbeassociatedwiththe“MotherGoddess”cultandnegatestheexistenceofapolytheisticIndusSociety.60Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)ThelackofreligiousiconsintheIndusValleyregionsincethebirthofcivilizationtillaslateas1stcenturyADadvocatethefactthatthepeopleofthisregionwerenotidolworshippersandmayhavebelievedin“OneGod”,ashasbeenproposedbytheauthorinherbook.Additionally,multiplescholarsconsideringtextualandarchaeologicalevidencefromMesopotamiaandEgyptnotonlyadvocatebeliefin“OneGod”,duringcertainperiodsbutalsotalkaboutprohibitionofidolworship.Thus,somereferencesareofferedtosupporttheirargument.Inajournalentitled,“TheLifeandThoughtoftheSurroundingPeoples,”L.L.Grabbetalksaboutalectureseriesthatwaspublishedintheyear2000,whichprovokesonetorethinkaboutthefacileantithesisofpolytheismandmonotheismandtofindhowmonotheistictendenciesarosefrompolytheisticsocietieslivinginthegreaterArabworld,especiallyinregionsthatincludebothMesopotamiaandEgypt.Inthisarticlehenarrates,“Theessays(allinGerman)areonpolytheismandmonotheism(B.Gladigow);thoughtabouttheOneinancientEgypt(E.Hornung);pluralityandunityintheancientMesopotamianpantheon(Krebernik);‘equationtheology’,‘syncretism’,and‘deityfissuring’inpolytheisticancientAnatolia(G.Wilhelm);theunityofagodinthepolytheismofUgarit-ontheLevantastheplaceoforiginofbiblicalmonotheism(O.Loretz);monotheism,polytheism,anddualityinancientIran(M.Stausberg);theoneandonlygodofIsraelindispute9VanOorschot);themonotheisticrequirementinrabbinicJewishtradition(J.Maier)religionandcultinancientSouthArabia(W.W.Muller);GnosticpolytheismorGnosticmonotheism?(B.Aland);HeisTheos?–monotheismandChristianity(C.Markschies);Islam-fromhighgodbelieftomonotheism?(T.Seidensticker).3861TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Inshort,alltheselectureshinttowardssignsofmonotheisminthepresenceofpolytheism.Furthermore,EphraimMeirinoneofhispublishedarticlesentitled,“SigmundFreud’sMosesandHisReappearance:theForgottenandtheUnforgettable,”talksaboutFreud’sfindingsmentionedinhisbookentitledMosesandMonotheisminwhichheclaims,“thatmonotheismoriginatedinEgyptduringthereignofAmenhotepIV,whocalledhimselfIkhnatonafterthesun-godAton(seeFigure24),whomheconsideredtobethesolegod.”39ItisbelievedthatIkhnatonreignedfrom1350to1334BCEandduringthisperiodhedistancedhimselffromanyanthropomorphicrepresentationofgod,howeverafterhisdeathPharaohsandEgyptiansreturnedtotheiroldergodstillamancalledMosesnotonlysavedmonotheismfromextinctionbutgaveittotheJews.Although,FreudwasnotapracticingJewandbelievedthatreligionwasanillusion,yethecouldnotdenyJudaism’scommendablecontributiontowardsthegenesisofcivilizationandculturalnormsthatcontributedandplayedavitalrole.Figure24-SunGodAtonwithIkhnatonandhiswifehttps://www.pinterest.com/pin/257479303669173637/DeenaE.Grant,inoneofherpublishedarticlesentitled,“FireandtheBodyofYahweh,”saysthat,62Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)“TheHebrewBiblepreservesastrongtraditionofaniconism.Worshippingiconsisprohibitedthroughoutitsbooks(Exod.20.4-5;Deut.5.8-9;Isa.44;Jer.10).”40ConclusionSo,consideringtheabove-mentionedarguments,thisstudyhasexploredpossibilitiesofthefactthattheIndusValleyregionwasnotonlyhometolaterindigenousreligionslikeJainism,BuddhismandHinduismthathelpedtoshapethereligiousbeliefsofotherregionsofSouthAsiaandSouthEastAsiabutalsohasamucholderreligiouspresenceduringtheIndusValleycivilizationthatseemstohavecontributedtowardsshapingthereligiousbeliefsofthegreaterArabworldconsideringthe“OutofAsia”hypothesisgivenbyDennella,TorresbandCastroandanalysisgivenbyWilson.So,thispaperstrengthenstheargumentthatafurtherprobeisrequiredtodiscoverreligiousaffiliationsamongtextsbelongingtoalargergeographicalarea,keepinginmindthechronologyofnotonlythetextsunderconsiderationbutthehypothesesthatHarappanswereprobablytheparentstockofallMesopotamians.AssuggestedbySimoParpola,scholarsofancientMesopotamianeedtostudythereligionsoftheIndianSub-ContinenttogainbetterfocusonthereligionprevalentinancientMesopotamia.41AtthispointIwanttoquoteaparagraphfromthebookOurOrientalHeritage,whichexplainstheuniquerelationshipthatthepeopleofthislandstillhaveandhavealwayshadwithreligion.“Innoothercountryisreligionsopowerful,orsoimportant,asinIndia.IftheHindushavepermittedaliengovernmentstobesetoverthemagainandagainitispartlybecausetheydidnotcaremuchwhoruledorexploitedthem-nativesorforeigners;thecrucialmatterwasreligion,notpolitics;thesoul,notthebody;endlesslaterlivesratherthanthispassingone.When63TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...Ashokabecameasaint,andAkbaralmostadoptedHinduism,thepowerofreligionwasrevealedovereventhestrongestmen.Inourcenturyitisasaint,ratherthanastatesman,whoforthefirsttimeinhistoryhasunifiedallIndia.”42Accordingly,intheabsenceofadecipheredIndusscriptonemustconsideralltextualprobabilitiestofindandrecognizetheinfluenceofHarappanreligiousandliteraryinheritancenotonlyintheearlystrataofHinduism43butalsointhereligiousthoughtprevalentintheoraltraditionsofgreaterArabworld.OnemustalsolookatdatafromtheIslamichistoriansandtheirliterature.AsBruceTriggerhassuggestedearlycivilizationshavemoreincommonregardingtheirideologyandreligion.44References1SarahUmer,ReligiousBeliefsoftheIndusValleyCivilization(Dubai:JamalonOmniScriptumPublishingGroup,2018),240–51.2ThomasJ.Thompson,“AnAncientStatelessCivilization:BronzeAgeIndiaandtheStateinHistory,”TheIndependentReview10,no.3(2006):368.3NarendraKatkar,“TheLastGlacierMaximum:TheThirdMigration,”ComptesRendusPalevol10(2011):665–784KennethA.R.Kennedy,“HaveAryansBeenIdentifiedinthePrehistoricSkeletalRecordfromSouthAsia?,”inTheIndo-AryansofAncientSouthAsia,ed.G.Erdosy(BerlinandNewYork:WalterdeGruyter,1995),54–60.5W.R.Dennell,M.Martinon-Torres,andJ.M.BermudezdeCastro,“OutofAsia:TheInitialColonizationofEuropeintheEarlyandMiddlePleistocene,”QuaternaryInternational10(2009):1016.6MichaelCook,ABriefHistoryoftheHumanRace(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,2003),20–23.7KinnierV.J.Wilson,“FishRationsandtheIndusScript:SomeNewArgumentsintheCaseforAccountancy,”SouthAsianStudies3(1987):44.8G.PaulBahn,ed.,TheAtlasofWorldArchaeology(Oxfordshire:Androneda,2002),60.9LouisaChristinaElisabethCaspers-During,“TheIndusValley‘Unicorn’:ANearEasternConnection,”JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient34,no.4(1991):312–50.10AskoParpola,SimoParpola,andR.H.Brunswig,“TheMeluhhaVillage:EvidenceofAcculturationofHarappanTradersinLateThirdMillenniumMesopotamia?,”JournaloftheEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOrient20,no.2(May1977):129–62.64Al-Qamar,Volume9,Issue2(April-June2026)11JackFinegan,ArchaeologicalHistoryoftheAncientMiddleEast(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,1979),17;GeoffreyBibby,LookingforDilmun(Michigan:Knopf,1970);NoahSamuelKramer,TheSumerians:TheirHistory,CultureandCharacter(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1963),281;NickWyatt,“WhatHasUgarittoDowithJerusalem,”StudiesinWorldChristianity8,no.1(January2008):155–56;andJohnSassoon,FromSumertoJerusalem–TheForbiddenHypothesis(London:IntellectBooks,1993),80–83.12StephenHillyerLevitt,“TheDatingoftheIndianTradition,”AnthroposInstituBd.98,H.2(2003):353.13Sassoon,FromSumertoJerusalem,71–96.14Levitt,“TheDatingoftheIndianTradition,”351–52.15BarbaraNevlingPorter,“Introduction,”inOneGodorMany?ConceptsofDivinityintheAncientWorld,ed.BarbaraNevlingPorter(UK:CDL,January2018),5.16Sassoon,FromSumertoJerusalem,67–75.17Ibid.,95.18Levitt,“TheDatingoftheIndianTradition,”342.19IrfanHabib,“MedievalPopularMonotheismandItsHumanism:TheHistoricalSetting,”SocialScientist21,no.3/4(March–April1993):79.20RichardJ.Clifford,“PhoenicianReligion,”BulletinoftheAmericanSchoolsofOrientalResearch279(August1990):55–56.21KunalChakrabarti,“TheLilyandtheMud:D.D.KosambionReligion,”EconomicandPoliticalWeekly43,no.30(July2008):62–63.22JimWills,AtoZofWorldReligions–Places,Prophets,SaintsandSeers(Mumbai:JaicoPublishingHouse,2007),268–69.23WarrenMatthews,WorldReligions,3rded.(Toronto:WadsworthPublishingCompany,1999),83–85.24UpinderSingh,AHistoryofAncientandEarlyMedievalIndia:FromtheStoneAgetothe12thCentury(NewDelhi:PearsonLongman,2008),254–55;andM.R.Mughal,“NewArchaeologicalEvidencefromBahawalpur,”inIndusCivilization:ANewPerspective,ed.A.H.Dani(Islamabad:CentrefortheStudyoftheCivilizationsofCentralAsia,Quaid-e-AzamUniversity,1981).25TheNewEncyclopediaBritannica,vol.21,s.v.“TheIndusCivilization.”26Habib,“MedievalPopularMonotheismandItsHumanism,”79.27Wills,AtoZofWorldReligions,268–69.28RichardSchiemann,“TheRelevanceofArchaeologytotheStudyofAncientWestSemiticReligion,”WorldArchaeology10,no.2(October1978):133–36.29Thompson,“AnAncientStatelessCivilization,”366–67.30WalterA.FairservisJr.,“G.L.Possehl’sandH.M.Raval’sHarappanCivilizationandRojdi,”JournalofAmericanOrientalSociety111,no.1(January–March1991):108–13.31IrfanHabib,APeople’sHistoryofIndia2–TheIndusCivilization–IncludingOtherCopperAgeCulturesandHistoryofLanguageChangetillc.1500BC(NewDelhi:TulikaBooks,2002),53.32MortimerWheeler,TheIndusCivilization,3rded.,supplementtotheCambridgeHistoryofIndia(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1968),91.33Habib,APeople’sHistoryofIndia2,56.65TheReligiousLegacyoftheHarappanCivilization:CriticallyReappraising...34CatherineJarrige,“TheTerracottaFigurinesfromMehrgrah,”inForgottenCitiesoftheIndus(Mainz:VerlagPhilippvonZabern,1991),87–93.35Ibid.,92.36CatherineJarrige,“HumanFigurinesfromtheNeolithicLevelsatMehrgrah(Baluchistan,Pakistan),”inSouthAsianArchaeology2003,ed.U.Franke-VogtandH.-J.Weisshaar(Aachen:ForschungenzurArcharologie,2005),34.37RitaP.Wright,TheAncientIndus:Urbanization,Economy,andSociety(NewDelhi:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010),62.38L.L.Grabbe,“LifeandThoughtofSurroundingPeoples,”JournalfortheStudyoftheOldTestament31,no.5(2007):209–22.39EphraimMeir,“SigmundFreud’sMosesandHisReappearance:TheForgottenandtheUnforgettable,”Daat:AJournalofJewishPhilosophy&Kabbalah73(2012):5–28.40E.DeenaGrant,“FireandtheBodyofYahweh,”JournalfortheStudyoftheOldTestament40,no.2(2015):139–61.41SimoParpolaandJulianReade,LettersfromAssyrianandBabylonianScholars(Helsinki:HelsinkiUniversityPress,1979),17;andStephenHillyerLevitt,“Vedic–AncientMesopotamianInterconnectionsandtheDatingoftheIndianTradition,”AnnalsoftheBhandarkarOrientalResearchInstitute93(2012):137,192.42WillDurant,TheStoryofCivilization–PartI–OurOrientalHeritage(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,1954),503.43Parpola,Parpola,andBrunswig,“TheMeluhhaVillage,”164.44JohnBaines,“EgyptianDeitiesinContext:Multiplicity,Unity,andtheProblemofChange,”inOneGodorMany?ConceptsofDivinityintheAncientWorld,ed.BarbaraN.Porter(UK:CDL,January2018),9.66